Tag: Writers Resources

Effective Use of Secondary Sources

Posted on by Allan Johnson in Observations

There are three main ways in which secondary source material can be integrated into an essay: summarizing, paraphrasing, and quoting.

Summarizing

Summarizing means explaining the central argument of a secondary source in your own words.  It is generally the case that a summary cannot be attributed to a specific page number, so simply the date (in Harvard style) or the bibliographical information without a page number (in MHRA style) can be used.   Summarizing can be helpful because it shows, firstly, your ability to extract the main point from a source and explain it in your own words.  By boiling down the argument in such a way, you will be able consider several important sources simultaneously.  In this way, it makes source material work for your argument, and frees up the time and space for you to develop your own response rather than laboriously outlining the argument of someone else.  Make sure, though, that your summary takes into account the full scope of the author’s argument, otherwise you might be paraphrasing, which is dealt with in a different way and serves a different function.

Paraphrasing

Paraphrasing is a more specific form of summarizing, in that you are explaining in your own words a short passage from the source material.  You might paraphrase a single sentence or perhaps a full page.  Doing so allows you to integrate the source material seamlessly into your own essay, and to streamline passages that would be too long to quote directly.  You must make sure that your paraphrase is substantially different to the original, because otherwise it will be considered plagiarism. The key difference between summarizing and paraphrasing is that, while a summary explains a source’s argument, a paraphrase explains a piece of evidence that the source uses to support that argument.  Because the paraphrase refers to a specific portion of the text, it is required in MHRA style that you cite the page number in your footnote.

Direct Quotations

The selection of direct quotations to include in your essay is an important component of the overall effectiveness of the argument that you pose. Firstly, they give the reader a sense of the original style and tone of the source material.  While, in one sense, professional academic writers often contrive to be neutral and evenhanded in argumentation, you may find that occasionally the style and tone of the writer is a significant component of their main point.  If so, a direct quotation could allow you to highlight this feature.  Direct quotations also prove to the reader that the text says what you claim it says.  I don’t want to suggest that you must slavishly validate every point that you make about a secondary source, but direct quotations can often serve a  helpful illustrative purpose when introducing them to your reader.  Direct quotations also highlight an especially interesting or well-stated point in the author’s own words. Sometimes the original author simply said something better than anyone else ever could.  If so, celebrate this fact—share this quotation with your reader.

 

This post is based upon teaching resources I developed while teaching at the University of Leeds.

The Art and Science of Academic Writing

Posted on by Allan Johnson in Observations
Informal, Academic, Writing Experiences
(Photo credit: nashworld)

Academic writing is both an art form and a science.  Various conventions of style and argumentation have emerged because they tend to produce clear, effective pieces of writing. To a great extent, the conventions of grammar that we will be covering must be taken as rules that must be followed.  But conventions of structure, organization, and argument formation are merely tools that you must learn to make work for yourself.  They might sometimes seems overly reductive or formulaic, but it is important to remember that they are only guidelines to help you develop your own personal, authentic critical voice.  In the same way that a painter, sculptor, dancer, actor, or architect must practise and refine his or her art, academic writers must practise and refine the art of writing.

Drafting: The Reader Sees / The Writer Sees

Posted on by Allan Johnson in Observations
Essay
Essay (Photo credit: emilybean)

Once you have finished the draft of your first essay and you are happy with your work, leave it for a few days and move on to something else. Then, when you come back to it, read through it twice. The first time, imagine that you are a reader who has never seen the essay before and only knows a little bit about the topic. The second time, image that you are a professional writer reviewing his or her own manuscript that is about to be sent off to a publisher. Answer the following questions.

The Reader Sees (reading the essay as an outside who only knows a little about the topic):

  1. What did you find most interesting about the argument posed in this essay?
  2. What confused you about this essay?
  3. What questions do you have after reading this essay?

The Writer Sees (reading the essay as a professional writer):

  1. What are you proud of in this essay?
  2. Which section(s) did you skim over or read through very quickly? Why?
  3. Are you convinced by your own argument? Why or why not?

 

This activity asks you to consider the important relationship that exists between reader and writer. It is crucial to think about the needs of your reader because your writing always exists independently of you — you will not be there to explain your ideas if your reader has any questions. Responding to the questions that a reader might have, or clarifying and streamlining a section that might confuse them will allow your essay to stand on its own, and will ultimately allow your reader to trust you more. The relationship between reader and writer is based upon how well the reader thinks the writer understands him or her, and anticipates the kinds of concerns that they might have. Stepping into the shoes of your reader for a few minutes can be a big help.

This post is based upon teaching resources developed while teaching at the University of Leeds.

Prewriting: The Three Questions

Posted on by Allan Johnson in Observations

Academic essays at university level arenʼt just a form of assessment. Academic essay writing is part of the learning process itself, and the research that you will undertake is a part of your intellectual growth. You are not expected to simply summarize the ideas that you have learned in your module. Instead, you are expected to explore these ideas in the context of your own unique perspective and put forward an argument of your own.

As you begin writing, think not only about what you already know about the topic and what you have learned about the topic in your module, but also what you might learn about the topic through your research and the writing process itself. Use these three questions during the prewriting stage of your next essay to help identify where your knowledge strengths lie, and to identify what questions or ideas you might need to research in order to fully develop your argument.

  1. What did you know about this topic before you began this module?
  2. What have you learned about this topic thus far in this module?
  3. What do you need to learn about this topic in order to form an effective argument?

 

This post is based upon teaching resources developed while I was teaching at the University of Leeds School of English.

Advice for New Students of English Literature

Posted on by Allan Johnson in Observations
AP English Books
English Books (Photo credit: Dave Kleinschmidt)

Read Widely

Perhaps the most important advice for English literature students is to read widely.  While you will certainly be doing a great deal of reading for each of your modules, don’t forget about your own personal reading interests.  Periodicals such as The New Yorker, The Times Literary Supplement, The Atlantic Monthly, and Monocle are known for their high-quality features and book reviews.  Newspapers such as The Times, The New York Times, La Monde, and The Financial Times are world-famous for their reportage.  And, as we are living in a digital age, don’t forget about relevant blogs and other important online news sources such as Slate and Salon.  There are two main goals in casting your net widely: 1) you can begin to observe and appreciate how professional writers communicate, and 2) you never know what might spark an idea for your next great essay.

Write Regularly

Writing is an art form, and, as such, it must be practised regularly. For centuries, writers have kept journals (sometimes called ‘commonplace books’, ‘morning pages’, or ‘author’s day books’) that keep a record of insights, ideas, and observations.  It doesn’t really matter what the subject matter is—you choose. The important thing is to get a feel for how you write and to get into the habit of crafting and re-crafting your sentences and paragraphs. Be prepared to be your own worst critic! Show other people your writing and see what they think. Above all, learn to see writing as an active creative and intellectual process. You will improve if you keep practising.
 A regular record of what you have read and what insights you have come to will not only allow you to practise the art of writing, but will prove to be an invaluable tool for working through new and complex ideas explored in your modules.

Take Downtime

It can be very easy for English literature students to begin to lose sight of what led them to their degree in the first place: a genuine love of language and literature.  Don’t forget about reading for pleasure, and allowing yourself time to relax and to step away from your coursework. Begin to think about what speaks to you in your recreational reading. What draws you in?  Sometimes the greatest insights come during those moments when the mind is relaxed and simply enjoying something fun.

Develop Critical Interests in Other Areas

As you begin to read widely, and to discover new writers and publications, it is very likely that you will come across subjects that you find very interesting.  Vinology, evolutionary psychology, trench warfare, fashion history, Kabuki theatre—it could be anything!  Trust your instincts and follow your interests.  You never know what important new insights will come out of your own critical interests in other areas, or how your own personal study of an intriguing topic might contribute to your coursework.   The study of English language and literature is not an insular field—it speaks in many important ways to a wide variety of topics.

Develop a System

Developing a coherent, consistent system of note taking is an essential first step in achieving academic success.   Everyone’s note taking system will be personal and unique, sometimes even to the extent that it doesn’t make sense to anyone else.  What is most important, though, is that your system works for you, and allows you to keep track not only of your class notes, but also your own independent reading and research. While notebooks are often still the preferred method for many students, you may find it worthwhile to investigate some digital options. Evernote (free), Mendeley (free), and DevonThink (around £30) are some of the most popular digital note taking systems used by professional writers and academics.